Turning a copper-clad board into a functional PCB using a laser is essentially a subtractive manufacturing process driven by precise energy deposition. A focused laser beam locally ablates the copper layer, removing conductive material where isolation is required and leaving behind the intended traces. The workflow starts with a PCB layout exported as vector paths (typically from KiCad or Eagle). These paths are converted into toolpaths that control laser motion and power. Key parameters include wavelength, pulse duration, spot size, and power density—each influencing how efficiently copper is removed without damaging the substrate (usually FR-4). Because copper has high reflectivity in the visible range, shorter wavelengths (e.g., UV) or higher energy densities improve absorption and ablation efficiency. Thermal management is critical. Excess energy can delaminate the substrate or char the epoxy resin beneath the copper. To mitigate this, passes are often done in multiple low-power ...